Inside the Museum of London

Hot off the Press….this month sees the publication of two brand new MOLA monographs invovling the work of the osteology team.

Excavations at New Bunhill Fields, Southwark in 2008 uncovered evidence of a heavily used private burial ground. Documentary sources suggest that from c 1821–53 up to 33,000 burials may have taken place in the commercial Nonconformist burial ground. Excavation of 827 wooden coffin burials allowed comparisons of the use of the burial ground, coffin furniture and burial finds with other contemporary cemeteries. Of particular interest were the good level of preservation of floral remains in a child’s coffin, ceramic plates in a woman’s coffin and good examples of burial clothing. The 514 skeletons selected for full osteological analysis, demonstrated a broad spectrum of pathological conditions including evidence of metabolic, infectious, congenital and neoplastic diseases. Evidence of trauma suggested high rates of interpersonal violence and eight skeletons showed signs of post-mortem examination. One adult male displayed a particularly striking case of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (cancer) with massive destruction of the central facial area of the skull. Another condition rarely encountered in the archaeological record was a case of osteogenesis imperfecta identified in an 18 month old child. This evidence will help provide information about life and death in this area of 19th-century London.

Next up is the much anticipated bioarchaeological study of the medieval burials from Spitalfields Market.

Major excavations in 1999-2002 on the site of the Augustinian priory and hospital of St Mary Spital uncovered the remains of over 10,500 human skeletons. Unprecedented accuracy of dating and phasing of the cemetery was achieved using a targeted programme of stratigraphic and radiocarbon dating techniques, resulting in four chronological periods of burials. Osteological analysis of a sample of 5387 skeletons has provided a unique insight into the lives of medieval Londoners from the 12th to the early 16th centuries. Many of the skeletons showed evidence of disease and injury including some of the earliest cases of syphilis in Europe. The results of this major project are integrated into a biocultural framework, which includes the recurrent famines and epidemics of the time, effects of urban living on child health, the role and influence of the hospital and the reasons behind the mass burial of almost 4000 people.

For more information and to order any Museum of London Archaeology publications go to:

http://www.museumoflondonarchaeology.org.uk/Publications/Ordering.htm

Since the beginning of 2012 the Osteology Department at MOLA has been involved in the Digitised Diseases project in collaboration with the University of Bradford the Royal College of Surgeons and funded by JISC. The ultimate aim of the project is to produce a web resource featuring high resolution 3D images of human bones with evidence of disease. Intended as a teaching tool, the website will allow detailed inspection of pathological lesions. Users will be able to move each image around in order to view it from every angle. They will also be able to zoom in to a high degree of magnification.

We hope that the value of the resource for medical students and professionals will be the ability to observe the various effects of different diseases on the bone and so understand how the pathological process affects the skeletal system.

It will expand on modern clinical experience by demonstrating changes that occur over long periods of time. In the pre-antibiotic age, chronic diseases were frequently incurable and could progress to their full degree. Advances in medicine have reduced modern doctors’ exposure to such cases. The website will provide a searchable database categorized by disease class, offering a diagnostic aid to help with cases of bone disease.

The creation of the resource requires a number of stages. For MOLA this started with the delivery of a FARO Quantum laser arm and a camera by the team from Bradford. Following training on the arm, and instruction on the method of photography and database entry, we were ready to go.

Specimens were selected with reference to those already scanned at Bradford in order to minimise repetition. By using the collections of three institutions it is hoped that the majority of skeletal diseases are covered. To date we have scanned nearly one hundred bones, including examples of infectious, metabolic, neoplastic and developmental disease.

Once a bone is chosen it is given a unique index number and entered into the database. Photographs are taken from every angle, concentrating on getting a focused shot of each part of the specimen. The bone is then placed on a solid heavy table and laser scanned. Usually this entails taking two ‘views’. Put simply, the bone is placed one way up to scan it, and then turned over to scan the other side. Each time the laser is moved over the bone is called a pass and it often takes a large number of passes to capture all surfaces and features of a pathological specimen. Each pass is recorded on the computer as a different colour.

Once the views have been completed and aligned, they are overlain and joined together on the computer. All scanned points are then aligned to produce a file containing a 3D image blank, which is sent off to Bradford with the photographs. There the photographs are mapped onto the blanks by games industry professionals to produce the finished models.

So please, let us know what you think, and how you might use this resource.

Fur further information see:

Last night saw the opening of the new Bone exhibition at the Florence Nightingale Museum. A fascinating gallery of around 60 artefacts, specimens, books, images and objects, all of a bone related nature.

From Chinese bound foot shoes to amputation saws, artificial hip joints to ground bone fertiliser, a collection of historical, scientific and cultural items. A radiograph of Sigmund Freuds head graphically revealed how his maxilla (upper jaw) was surgically removed after suffering from cancer. Perhaps they were less concerned at the time as to the effects of powerful X-rays on his brain!

The exhibit features a range of human pathological bone specimens: a femur (thigh bone) heavily eroded by an osteosarcoma (bone tumour), a healed subtrochanteric fracture of a hip, the heavily bowed lower limb of an individual who had suffered rickets and a sailors foot slightly crushed by a 600Ib cannon ball.

Amongst the animal bone on display, a giraffe vertebrae, a cat skeleton and a tortoiseshell belonging to Jimmy, Florence Nightingale’s ward pet. Aslo featured were objects loaned by our own Museum of London Archaeology specialists  Jim Morris and Michael Marshall: Medieval bone ice skates, a Bronze Age antler pick and an assortment of sheep metatarsals reflecting increased length over time through selective breeding.

The exhibition runs over the summer until August

After our recent Initial Investigations blog post, Jill Saunders tells us more about the conservation work on the iron coffin from St Bride’s, this time focusing on the coffin lid.

Fig. 1 The coffin lid as it was displayed at St Bride’s (underside visible)

The lid of the coffin had key features relating to the object’s anti-theft function with iron pegs all the way around which would spring and catch under a ledge on the coffin base, keeping the casket locked tight. Though the main pegs were quite robust, the catches were more vulnerable and we had to be mindful of them during treatment and any manoeuvring. In addition to small corroded losses and a build up of corrosion products (which would be expected), the lid displayed signs of damage appearing to be caused by force. There was a missing peg revealing a circle of fresh iron and potions of the sheet metal were caved in and curled round. Though we cannot be certain how or when this damage occurred we suspect that it was caused at the time of excavation or shortly afterwards by archaeologists forcing the coffin open. The peg could have also been knocked off at a later date. Eg moving the object around the tight paces and stone walls of the crypt.

As mentioned in my first blog, Conservation Introduction, we knew that this object had to be prepared for display and then long term storage back at the crypt so we were concerned with its general appearance and aesthetic features and wanted to offer some protection against wear and tear and environmental conditions. After preliminary dust removal using a brush and vacuum, there remained a great deal of unsightly bulbous orange/brown iron corrosion products which disrupted the flat surface and obscured manufacturing features such as join edges, rims and the pegs too (Fig. 2). In order to minimise the risk of damage it was important to approach the object with the least possible force and work up until a successful result was achieved. We began simply brushing and found that stiff brushes were able to remove a significant amount of the very bubbly upper-most corrosion.

Fig. 2 Bulbous corrosion products along the inner lid rim

Fig. 3 A region of the rim where bulbous corrosion has been removed

However some lower levels were more stubborn. We used a type of rubber named Garryflex which contains abrasive grit to work more on these areas and the action also helped to reduce the pale corrosion dust created by the brushing which was trapped between the crevices of the uneven surface.

Fig. 4 Garryflex rubber blocks

Fig. 5 A portion of the coffin lid inner surface with corrosion brushed and Garryflex abrasion

Because of the pegs, the lid had been placed on its board front side down with the inside cover visible and pegs sticking up. However from brief visual examination during transportation we knew that the other side had some traces of decoration. We were hence careful not to press down too hard and tried to minimise movement in the object during our corrosion reduction on the inner lid.

Following on from our recent blog Protecting the bodies of the dead, Jill Saunders, Museum of London Conservation Intern and UCL MSc student, gives an update on the conservation work on the iron coffin from St Bride’s.

Fig. 1 Museum of London Conservation Interns 2011-2012. Jon Readman, Durham University (left) & Jill Saunders, University College London (right).

As Interns, working at the Museum of London from October 2011 – Jun 2012, both Jon (Readman) and I have worked on a tremendous range and quantity of incredible artefacts. However nothing has quite come close to the iron coffin from St Bride’s and we were very excited to have the challenge of such a large and demanding object. Before even seeing the coffin we had quite a lot of information to work with regarding the purpose of conservation work and we conducted literary research and held professional dialogues to begin to understand the object’s historical and material significances. It was important to start thinking about all of these points:

• The object had to be prepared for open display in the Museum of London’s Doctors, Dissection and Resurrection Men exhibition (opening on 19 October 2012) and would be likely to remain on permanent open display at in the St Bride’s crypt. Without the environmental control and physical barrier provided by a case we knew that the iron and any delicate features would need special protection, and because the object was always going to be displayed and not hidden away in storage, we knew that it would be important to make aesthetic features, such as decoration, as clear as possible for the public to see and enjoy.

• We were soon aware of the unique status of the object which simultaneously increased the importance of preservation and potential benefit of investigations.

• Though the coffin was now empty, we had to be prepared for possible traces of human remains and show due respect considering the past use of the object.

Fig. 2 A detail from an advertisement contemporary to the coffin displayed at St Bride’s.

Fig. 3 Iron coffin on open display in St Bride’s crypt. Photos taken March 2012.

We made an initial visit to the crypt at St Bride’s church, Fleet Street, to view the coffin and, taking plenty of photographs, we carried out a preliminary assessment of key features and began thinking about potential conservation issues…

…noting slots where possible slats were once present, now lost:

Fig. 4 Black arrows show where possible slat slots are present.

…considering locations of possible decoration and handles as indicated by corrosion and other deterioration products:

Fig. 5 Photoshop image showing likely location of border and handles.

…locating key decorative features needing protection:

Fig. 6 Border detail along base of coffin.

….and assessing general condition:

Fig. 7 The interior showing mixed debris and original wooden base remains on the right hand side.

Fig. 8 Holes in the lid.

Fig. 9 Holes in the coffin side and deformation of upper back border which is bent over.

From the information gained on this first visit, and in consideration of key object contexts and significances, we put together a preliminary ‘Treatment Proposal’ for St Bride’s to gain their official approval before the coffin was removed to the lab and treatment could begin. This document is a way of compiling and presenting all sorts of information about an object from past socio-historical significances to current material condition to ensure proposed treatment actions are balanced and well considered. At this stage we suggested action under four headings: ‘Cleaning and Excavation’; ‘Consolidation’; ‘Repair and Support’; and ‘Corrosion Inhibition’ and St Bride’s were satisfied to give us the go ahead.

Watch this space for the next entry covering the transportation of the coffin and lid from St Bride’s to the Museum of London: Crypt to Laboratory.

This month  PhD student Rebecca Watts from the university of Reading talks about her recent research at the lab using skeletons from our archaeological collections.

People are much easier to deal with when they are dead. This is a thought which has occurred to me many times during my time at the Museum of London – usually as I make my way home on the Circle Line during rush hour! But fear not, I do not harbour any homicidal impulses, I’ve simply been having a wonderful time looking at the remains of around 1,000 ancient Londoners at the Centre for Human Bioarchaeology.

These skeletons come from a wide selection of London’s medieval and post-medieval cemeteries and the information they have given me will form an integral part of my PhD, looking at how health in childhood might have determined how long people lived in the past.

This is a topic which has been studied in modern day populations, where researchers can keep a record of birth-weight, childhood illnesses and growth rates to see if there is a link between childhood health and the types of diseases that people develop in later life. Projects like these have discovered that people who develop conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are much more likely to have been ill as babies and children, and even may have developed too slowly in the womb. However, the levels of health in modern populations are generally very good and if children do become ill we have medicines and other medical treatments to make them better.  I am trying to find out how poor childhood health affected long-term health in the past when exposures to illnesses and infections happened much more frequently and children had little more than their own immune systems to help them recover.

Unfortunately we do not have medical records for people in archaeological populations, so instead we must look at their skeletons for signs that indicate how well they grew during childhood. Periods of ill health which disrupt the growth of children can leave marks on their bones and teeth which can still be detected once they reach adulthood. One of the marks I am looking for is linear enamel hypoplasia. Permanent, adult teeth begin to grow when a person is just a few days old and are fully formed by six years of age. Poor health and malnutrition can disrupt enamel formation and leave horizontal bands or grooves on the crowns of teeth which do not grow out and stay there permanently. If an adult skeleton has these marks on their teeth we know they experienced periods of ill health between birth and six years of age.

By looking for linear enamel hypoplasias and other marks like them in adult skeletons it is possible to see how well that person grew as a child and find out whether they grew up in a healthy, hygienic environment or if conditions were poor and led to many illnesses and diseases. We then look at how old that person was when they died to see if individuals who were unhealthy as children had a shorter adult lifespan.

Large sample sizes are crucial when looking at epidemiological processes like these and Jelena, Mike and Veronica have been wonderfully accommodating to bring 1,000 skeletons out from their shelves in the rotunda and into the office on a trolley which carries just 12 skeletons at a time. Mike in particular has heaved so many boxes around that he has probably developed muscles that would make Eugen Sandow jealous. So now I am returning to my office at Reading University after three months at the museum, having taken over 31,000 skeletal measurements, drunk around 400 cups of tea, and consumed so many biscuits I cannot bear to think about it. The CHB is an amazing resource for students like myself and other researchers who study human remains and the information we gain from these London skeletons will help to solve many of the mysteries which surround experiences of life and death in the past. For this, it is worth travelling on the Underground at rush hour.

On 19 October 2012 the Museum of London will open Doctors, Dissection and Resurrection Men, which will explore the early 19th century history of human dissection and the trade in dead bodies. Osteologist and exhibition curator Jelena Bekvalac talks about the work currently being undertaken for this major exhibition.

In 2006 archaeological excavations by Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA) took place on site at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel revealing an area of burial ground – used for a short period of time from c.1825-1840 – which had long since been forgotten. Significantly the passing of the 1832 Anatomy Act took place during this period, a pivotal point in time that had enormous implications in medical and social history that continues to resonate into the 21st century. The discoveries from the excavation are the basis of our forthcoming exhibition Doctors, Dissection and Resurrection Men. 

The skeletal material recovered from the burials was extraordinary with the discovery of individuals who had undergone post mortems and dissection, as well as comparative anatomy and teaching preparations. Being in the context of a hospital it is not perhaps unexpected to find evidence like this but it is an unusual archaeological assemblage. It provides a unique snapshot into a past era of a functioning hospital treating patients, as well as one of the earliest established medical teaching schools, founded in 1785 by surgeon Sir William Blizard.

London in the 19th century was rapidly developing as an industrial and urban metropolis with a growing population. Scientific investigation was flourishing and with the ascendancy of the surgeon anatomists demand for dead bodies was rising and needed a good supply. The poor were vulnerable both in life and death. Conditions of the cemeteries in the 19th century were dire with high mortality rates and an ever increasing number of burials. Burials of the poor were particularly vulnerable to the manoeuvrings of the resurrection men (body snatchers) who would enter cemeteries under cover of darkness, having with them spades and sacks to dig up the bodies of the dead and sell for a high price to anatomy and medical schools for dissection.

Iron coffin - St Bride’s Church on Fleet Street

One of the prevailing Christian religious fears of the time was the horror of being taken from your grave and dissected. Measures were taken in attempts to safeguard the dead but the resurrection men were resourceful and skilled in their grisly task. The wealthy were able to pay for more secure means of burial, including paying someone to watch over you after death until too decomposed to be of use to the resurrection men. There were also some extreme and bizarre innovations created to protect the dead. Lead coffins (triple shell) were a standard format for burial of the wealthy at this time but for a short period, at the height of the fear of resurrection men, iron coffins were offered by undertakers as the ultimate deterrent. These would have been very expensive and, therefore, the sole preserve of the wealthy.

With fear of body-snatching gripping 19th century Londoners, you might expect that there would be a number of iron coffins discovered during excavations but this is not the case. In all of the many excavations by MOLA not a single iron coffin has been found, making the iron coffin from St Bride’s Church on Fleet Street, which will feature in our exhibition, unique. The coffin has been on display for over 50 years in the crypt of the church. Continued investigations are under way as to whether the coffin was used for an interment or a patent model. The inclusion of this coffin in the exhibition illustrates the fear of the resurrection men and the world in which they moved and traded. In the following months leading up to the exhibition launch, the iron coffin will undergo conservation to expose and learn about its construction and decoration, revealing details to add to the history of iron coffins. The findings from this work will be posted here by our conservators so watch this space.

Our conservators taking the iron coffin to the Museum

I recently spent the day with Museum of London Archaeology photographer Andy Chopping.

On arriving at the photography studio I was greeted by a large white backdrop screen and an array of camera and lighting equipment adjusted to my height. I had brought with me one of the well preserved human skeletons from our archaeological collections and began to set out the bones onto a large, six foot long light box.

I laid out the skeleton in standard anatomical position as I would during full osteological analysis: the body extended on the back with the feet together and palms facing forwards. Starting with the skull, I worked my way down through the spinal column, arms, hands, legs, feet and finally the ribs.

This time, however, a large camera pointed directly at me, recording my every move.  A total of 600 images were captured at one frame per second with simultaneous flashes from the lighting creating a strobe effect.

The result was a stop motion video, an animation whereby hundreds of individual images were edited down to form a 40 second film replayed at 12 frames per second (click link below to play).

Skeleton stop motion video 

The final product was edited down into a Quick time movie using Final Cut Pro